Integration and Regulation of higher organisms by the neuroimmune super system

It is now apparent that the NervousEndocrine and Immune Systems (IS) form a regulatory circuitry in higher animals and in man. Further, these three systems are mutually interdependent for their function and therefore, here it is designated as the Neuroimmune Supersystem (NISS). Within NISS there is continuous communication via innervations, hormones, neurotransmitters, neuropeptides and cytokines. In the central nervous system (CNS) glia cells and also neurons are of bone marrow origin. The initial phases of lympoid cell development are dependent on neuroendocrine factors. Later on with immunological maturation cytokines become prominent in immune regulation under homeostatic (physiological) conditions. Immunological memory cells show a fair amount of autonomy. The immune system recognizes peptide sequences (T lymphocytes) and also the three dimensional structure of antigenic molecules (e.g. B lympocytes produce antibodies that recognize tertiary structure). This recognition will induce cytokines in immune cells, some of which have the capacity to signal the CNS/NISS either directly or via nerve signals. In the hypothalamus such signals are transmitted to the paraventricular nucleus (and to some related nuclei), which function as the centre of immunoregulation. The CNS will respond to the cytokine signals by the secretion of hormones, neuropeptides and cytokines in order to properly regulate the immune system. The CNS controls through its interaction with IS the invasion of the host by microbes and by other foreign materials as well as it defends the body against mutations and against cancer. Cytokines are newly recognised and shared mediators of the NISS.